HMR Project: History of Music & Modern Recording

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Birth of Classical Music: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Pastel: Maurice Quentin de La Tour c 1753

Which came first, music or philosophy? Which is a tight question one could tumble for a while. There's been a load of music theory unloaded on musicians throughout history, such as 'De institutione musica libri quinque' ('Five Books on Musical Education') by the Roman philosopher and senator, Boethius (c 480–524 AD). Some philosophers have been musicians, such as Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) devoted to organ. A few philosophers have been composers as well, such as Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) and Theodor Adorno (1903-1969). [See also Philosopher-Musicians.] Enlightenment philosopher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, was born on 28 June 1712 in the city-state of Geneva. Though not a major composer, he was a music theorist in addition to all else that he wrote. Though Rousseau had been far more concerned with political philosophy than music, in addition to several operas and ballets he composed more than fifty works including songs and two symphonies.

Rousseau's father was a watchmaker whose wife died nine days after Rousseau's birth. At age thirteen Rousseau worked for a notary, then an engraver, before running away to Savoy in 1728 (age 15) to find himself in the care of Françoise-Louise de Warens, a paid Catholic proselytizer. Under Warens, Rousseau studied mathematics, music, philosophy and, at age twenty, love with a woman at least twelve years his senior, Mme de Warens at Chambéry whom he called Maman (Mother) and writes about in Book VI of his 'Confessions'.

In 1742 Rousseau went to Paris to present a system of numbered musical notation to the French Academy of Sciences, which it rejected [Schmidt]. He published his 'Dissertation sur la musique moderne' in 1743. He also worked briefly as a secretary for Comte de Montaigue, French ambassador to Venice, in 1743. He finished his first of five operas, 'Les Muses Galantes' by July 1745 [Opera Baroque], premiering at the residence of Alexandre Le Riche de la Pouplinière [Wikipedia] in September to a less than encouraging review by Rameau.

In 1749 Rousseau began contributing articles to Diderot and D'Alembert's 'Encyclopédie' ('Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'). Starting with its first edition in 1751, the 'Encyclopédie' saw several revisions over the years with the backing of Madame de Pompadour. When Pope Clement XIII added the project to the 'Index Librorum Prohibitorum' (a list of heretical publications) in 1759 it continued being published in stealth until the project ceased in 1772/80. The 'Encyclopédie' to which Voltaire also contributed articles was key to the chest of the Enlightenment with which both Catholic and Protestant Churches found argument, for the presentation of information in that dictionary saw faith confronted with knowledge yet again, not as an absolute alternative, but stimulating reason versus blind belief.

The science, arts and manufacture of things that the 'Encyclopédie' presented, while lessening the role of the Church as final authority, were as a whole emblematic of the Age of Enlightenment, aka Age of Reason. Helping to prepare the Age of Enlightenment was such as so-called father of empirical science, England's Francis Bacon (1561-1626). The age was populated by the empirical philosophers and stretched to its apex in such as Germany's Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and the founding of the United States (1776) just prior to the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century on the Continent. In Great Britain access to information and the high literacy rate was already giving the island across the Channel a head start in industry.

In the meantime, Rousseau won an essay contest sponsored by the Academy of Dijon, resulting in the publishing of his first major philosophical work in 1750, 'Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'. in 1752 soprano, Marie Fel, presented Rousseau's 'Salve Regina' [Wikipedia] to Louis XV at Fontainebleau on an unidentified date. Rousseau's 'Le Devin du Village' ('The Village Soothsayer') was performed for Louis on 18 Oct 1752. Louis offered Rousseau a lifetime pension in response, a position Rousseau declined.

It was 1754 that Rousseau penned his 'Discourse on Inequality' for publishing the next year. By 1762 Rousseau had made a name for himself in the writing of several major works which yet brought small security to a man already fifty years old. In 1762 he brought witness to 'Emile, or On Education', his political 'The Social Contract', and his comedy, 'Narcissus', the latter performed in Paris by his Majesty's Company of Comedians on the 18th of December 1762. 'Emile' rejected the doctrines of original sin and divine revelation, also proposing in so many words that it was religion that wrought virtue, not Catholicism versus Protestantism. Such resulted in his books being burned in Paris, as well as banned in both Catholic France and Calvinist Geneva. Facing arrest, Rousseau fled to Neuchâtel, Switzerland, then Môtiers, they protected by the Prussian crown. Both he and and his house were nevertheless stoned on multiple occasions in 1765, ultimately urging him to the United Kingdom and the hospitality of Scottish philosopher, David Hume. He there wrote Books I-VI of his autobiographical 'Confessions' posthumously published in 1782. Rousseau was as aware of St. Augustine's 'Confessions' written circa 397-400 AD as he was that he was treading untested literary waters in an endeavor to give an honest account of oneself. Employing the public for priest, Rousseau added self-examination to other aspects of the Enlightenment, the memoir henceforth entering into literature unlike before.

By 1767 Rousseau was experiencing paranoia. Not trusting Hume, he returned to France that year by an assumed name, now to write Books VII-XII of 'Confessions' posthumously published in 1789. In 1770 he was legally permitted to return to Paris, though not allowed to publish. Rousseau's latter years were spent in social withdrawal with the exception of Christoph Willibald Gluck whom he met in 1774. Among his latest works was a 1774 review of a passage from Gluck's 'Orphée et Euridice' titled 'Extrait d’une réponse du petit faiseur à son prête-nom, sur l’Orphée de M. le Chevalier Gluck' ('Extract from a response from the little maker to his pseudonym, on the Orpheus of M. le Chevalier Gluck'). Rousseau also worked on his pastoral opera, 'Daphnis and Chloe', with libretto by Olivier de Corancez from 1774 to 1776. Though he left this work unfinished IMSLP has it published posthumously in 1779. The original 'Daphnis and Chloe' was the 2nd century novel by Longus.

Though Rousseau's literary works are fairly well-documented, his musical compositions are a scattered lot with neither any known directory nor edition of complete oeuvres. Concerning titles below, his setting for the 'Salve Regina' (above) premiered at Fontainebleau for Louis XV sometime in 1752. Come his opera, 'Le Devin du Village' performed for Louis on 18 October 1752, premiering for the public at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris on 1 March 1753. 'The Village Prophet' is a highly popular minuet from that opera commonly performed on piano, though it was likely written for harpsichord. Rousseau's definition of "minuet" would appear in Volume 10 of 'Encyclopédie' in 1765 [University of Michigan].

'Salve Regina' Marian antiphon by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Premiere sometime 1752 at Fontainebleau for Louis XV

Ex Cathedra / Jeffrey Skidmore Soprano: Carolyn Sampson Album

'Le Devin du Village' Opera by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Libretto by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Premiere 18 October 1752 at Fontainebleau for Louis XV

1 March 1753 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris

Cantus Firmus Consort and Kammerchor led by Andreas Reize

August 2006 at the Kleiner Konzertsaal in Solothurn, Switzerland

'The Village Prophet' Minuet by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

From the opera 'Le Devin du Village'

Premiere 18 October 1752 at Fontainebleau for Louis XV

1 March 1753 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris

Piano: Mary Munson Score

'Airs pour etre joues la troupe marchant' ('Airs to be Played for the Marching Troop') was written sometime in the 1770s and included in the posthumous publishing of 'Sur la Music Militaire'. In 1778 Rousseau was presented with text by Chevalier de Flamanville that was written in Haiti by Creole, Duvivier de la Mahautière, in 1757. This was 'Lisette quitté la plaine' which setting by Rousseau was called 'Chanson Negre' and among his final works. This song was included with other settings of poems by such as Metastasio and Petrarch in 'Les Consolations des misères de ma vie' that was published posthumously in 1781 [Voltaire Foundation].

'Second Air pour la Musique' March in G major by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

From 'Airs pour etre joues la troupe marchant'

('Airs to be played by the marching troop')

Composed sometime 1770 or so Score: English Français

Published posthumously in 'Sur la Musique Militaire'

Scored for 2 oboes / 2 G clarinets / 2 G horns / bassoon

Adapted for 2 fifes / drums / bass drum by Jérôme Orlandini

All instruments performed by Jérôme Orlandini

'Chanson Negre' that is 'Lisette quitté la plaine' Setting by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Text by Duvivier de la Mahautière 1757

Composed 1778 Published posthumously 1781

Text: Dream Variants Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles Potomitan

Oboe: Debra Nagy Guitar: Richard Stone

Cello: Eve Miller Baritone: Jean Bernard Cerin

I've not been able to determine when Rousseau authored 'Minuet' in G minor, nor for what instrument he wrote it. This piece is popularly performed as a solo on harp by numerous, so one could hazard it was written for that instrument. But Pollauf (below) has the piece arranged "for" harp by Samuel Milligan, so perhaps it was written for harpsichord. Nor is it known when Rousseau composed 'Variations'. It may have been published for piano in 1815, but was likely authored for harpsichord if not fortepiano. The fortepiano spent the eighteenth century in gradual development from 1698 to about 1800 when it finally emerged as we know it. It wasn't the most popular instrument during that time, such as J.S. Bach preferring the trusty old-fashioned plucking motion of the harpsichord for serious composing. The piano which hammers its strings required a hundred years as the lesser though promising fortepiano to eventually emerge into the instrument that Beethoven insisted upon. If Rousseau was like Bach, nor Bach alone, his compositions for keyboard meant harpsichord rather than fortepiano, much less the piano used by Yoel Ahn below. (Ahn has divided 'Variations' into two parts, not because Rousseau wrote two parts, but to meet YouTube specs).